Fig. 4

Strength of the Allee effect and total vector population density in the receiving patch for a hard and b soft ticks (a = 1, 2, 8 and 40; higher values indicate a stronger Allee effect). The arrows are for illustrative purposes. They represent the inflexion points for the short (I₂) and long-term (I₁) dynamics. On the right panel (b), the inflexion point (I₁), represents the threshold above which the population growth becomes positive. Default parameter values are found in Table 1. m_L = 0.017 year^-1 for the soft and m_L = m_N = m_A = 0.01 year^-1 for hard ticks