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Table 1 Overview of the key drivers and their mode of action for change in geographical distribution of Ixodes ricinus ticks in Europe

From: Driving forces for changes in geographical distribution of Ixodes ricinus ticks in Europe

    

Impact on spread or abundance at

KEY DRIVER

Driver

Mode of action of driver

Impact on tick biology

altitude

latitude

endemic zones

Climate

Temperature

Increased temperature during winter months

Increased winter survival

X

X

 
  

Overall increased temperature (winter and summer)

Extended development period

X

X

 
 

Rainfall

Increased humidity

Extended development period, increased survival

   
 

Snow cover

insulation, preventing ground temperature falling below 0°C

Increased winter survival

X

X

 
 

Extended vegetation period (increased temperature and reduced snow cover)

Altitudinal and latitudinal expansion of deciduous woodland creating suitable conditions for Ixodes ricinus

Improved microclimate with increased tick survival, and development

X

X

 
  

Dispersal of roe deer at higher altitude and latitude

Enhanced dispersal and reproduction

X

X

 

Anthropogenic

Wildlife management

Increased habitat for Ixodes ricinus

Enhanced dispersal

X

X

 
  

Increased habitat for hosts

Enhanced dispersal

X

X

 
  

Increased host abundance

Enhanced reproduction

  

X

 

Changes in land use patterns

Increased habitat for Ixodes ricinus

Enhanced dispersal

  

X

  

increased habitat for hosts

Enhanced dispersal

  

X

  

Increased host abundance

Enhanced reproduction

  

X

 

Forest management

Reforestation, creation of suitable habitats

 

X

X

X

Ecological / geographical factors

Habitat structure and connectivity

Increase in suitable environment

Enhanced reproduction and development

  

X

  

Improved hosts dispersal

Enhanced dispersal

  

X

 

Orientation of mountain slopes

Impact on microclimate

Impact on survival, development

X

  
 

Host dispersal

Behaviour adaptation of roe deer to human presence

Enhanced tick reproduction and dispersal

  

X